THE JOURNAL OF REGIONAL HISTORY V.7 No.1
Russia in the Crimea: Civilizer or Oppressor? Images of the Imperial Power in the Dispute of the Late 18th and the First Half of the 19th Century’s Travelogues
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The unification of the Crimea with Russia in 1783 was an important event in the world politics and attracted the attention of the whole Europe. The apparent evidence of that interest was
the inclusion of the Crimea in the itinerary of the great educational journey, or the Grand Tour, of the European elite. In their travelogues, published later on, the representatives of the European elite discussed the “legality” and effectiveness of the actions of the Russian authorities in the region. Given the specific image of the Crimea, a region with a predominantly Muslim population, located at the imaginary border between Europe and Asia, the travellers used traditional in the European mind ideas of the historical roles of East and West, the historical mission of the European powers, and the essence of the Russian state. As the source base for the study, several of the most popular travelogues of the period under research were chosen, in particular the works of François de Tott and Edward Clarke, William Eton and Matthew Guthrie, Mary Holderness and Paul Guibal, Xavier and Adèle Hommaire de Hell, and Olimpiada Shishkina. The article shows the genesis of popular, and the same time opposite interpretations of the historical role and fate of the Crimean Khanate,
from the “golden age” in the history of the region to the disaster that threw it far back. Depending on the author’s aim, the unification with Russia was interpreted as a “barbarian invasion,” or, alternatively, as a new possibility for fast progress. Moreover, the article uncovers the main criteria used by the travellers when evaluating the activities of the Russian government, their attitude towards the local residents, the ability to establish effective administration, develop trade, protect Christianity, keep archaeological and architectural monuments and sites, and so on. The work analyses established stereotypes developed by the travellers, such as “huge economic potential” of the Crimea, the perception of its residents as “noble savages / lazy idlers,” “Russian barbarism” concerning cultural heritage, and “military impotence” of the Black Sea Navy. It is indicated that many such assessments depended on the travellers’ background and already existing opinion, which had been formed before the journey. The article demonstrates the continuity in the
stereotypes and explanatory models, especially in the period of aggravation of relations between Russia and Europe on the eve and in the course of the Crimean War, when anti-Russian ideological patterns and discourses became in demand again.
the inclusion of the Crimea in the itinerary of the great educational journey, or the Grand Tour, of the European elite. In their travelogues, published later on, the representatives of the European elite discussed the “legality” and effectiveness of the actions of the Russian authorities in the region. Given the specific image of the Crimea, a region with a predominantly Muslim population, located at the imaginary border between Europe and Asia, the travellers used traditional in the European mind ideas of the historical roles of East and West, the historical mission of the European powers, and the essence of the Russian state. As the source base for the study, several of the most popular travelogues of the period under research were chosen, in particular the works of François de Tott and Edward Clarke, William Eton and Matthew Guthrie, Mary Holderness and Paul Guibal, Xavier and Adèle Hommaire de Hell, and Olimpiada Shishkina. The article shows the genesis of popular, and the same time opposite interpretations of the historical role and fate of the Crimean Khanate,
from the “golden age” in the history of the region to the disaster that threw it far back. Depending on the author’s aim, the unification with Russia was interpreted as a “barbarian invasion,” or, alternatively, as a new possibility for fast progress. Moreover, the article uncovers the main criteria used by the travellers when evaluating the activities of the Russian government, their attitude towards the local residents, the ability to establish effective administration, develop trade, protect Christianity, keep archaeological and architectural monuments and sites, and so on. The work analyses established stereotypes developed by the travellers, such as “huge economic potential” of the Crimea, the perception of its residents as “noble savages / lazy idlers,” “Russian barbarism” concerning cultural heritage, and “military impotence” of the Black Sea Navy. It is indicated that many such assessments depended on the travellers’ background and already existing opinion, which had been formed before the journey. The article demonstrates the continuity in the
stereotypes and explanatory models, especially in the period of aggravation of relations between Russia and Europe on the eve and in the course of the Crimean War, when anti-Russian ideological patterns and discourses became in demand again.
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Cross, A.G. “From the assassination of Paul I to Tilsit: The British in Russia and their travel writings (1801–1807).” Journal of European Studies, vol. 42, iss. 1 (2012): 5–21.
Dickinson, S. “Russia’s First ‘Orient’: Characterizing the Crimea in 1787.” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, vol. 3, no. 1 (2002): 3–25.
Druzhinina, E.I. Yuzhnaya Ukraina v period krizisa feodalizma. 1825–1860 gg. [Southern Ukraine during the crisis of feudalism. 1825–1860]. Moscow: Nauka, 1981. (In Russian)
Eisner, R. Travelers to an Antique Land. The History and Literature of Travel to Greece. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1993.
Gephardt, K. The Idea of Europe in British Travel Narratives, 1789–1914. London: Routledge, 2014.
Gerasimov, I., et al. Novaya imperskaya istoriya Severnoi Evrazii [New imperial history of Northern Eurasia], 2 pts. Pt. 2, Balansirovanie imperskoi situatsii XVIII–XX vv. [Balancing the
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Jobst, K. “Krym kak rossiiskoe lieu de mémoire. Istoki v XIX v.” [Crimea as Russian lieu de mémoire. The origins in the 19th century]. In Istoricheskaya pamyat' i obshchestvo v Rossiiskoi imperii i Sovetskom soyuze (konets XIX – nachalo XX v.): Mezhdunarodnyi kollokvium: Nauchnye doklady (Sankt-Peterburg, 25–28 iyunya 2007 g.) [Historical memory and society in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union (late 19th – early 20th century): International colloquium: Scholarly papers (St Petersburg, June 25–28, 2007)], 88–93. St Petersburg: Evropeiskii dom, 2007. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “K ponimaniyu krymskogo mifa: obraz ‘lenivogo tatarina’ v otechestvennom i zarubezhnom soznanii i ego ispol'zovanie” [Understanding the Crimean myth: The Image of ‘a Lazy Tatar’ in the domestic and foreign consciousness and its use]. In Mif v istorii, politike, kul'ture: sbornik materialov IV Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi mezhdistsiplinarnoi konferentsii
(Sevastopol', 26–27 iyunya 2020 g.) [Myth in history, politics, culture: Collection of materials of the 4th International Scientific Interdisciplinary Conference (June 26–27, 2020, Sevastopol)], edited by A.V. Stavitskii, 404–11. Sevastopol: Filial MGU imeni M.V. Lomonosova v gorode Sevastopole, 2020. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Kak opisat' etnografiyu imperskoi provintsii: Meri Khoulderness v Krymu” [Describing ethnography of a borderland province: Mary Holderness in the Crimea]. Izvestiya Ural'skogo federal'nogo universiteta. Seriya 2: Gumanitarnye nauki, vol. 22, no. 4 (202) (2020): 174–89. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Krym mezhdu Zapadom i Vostokom v zapiskakh britanskikh puteshestvennikov kontsa XVIII – nachala XIX v.” [The Crimea between East and West
according to late eighteenth – early nineteenth century British travelogues]. In Vzglyad chuzhezemtsa. Diplomaty, publitsisty, uchenye-puteshestvenniki mezhdu Vostokom i Zapadom v
XVIII–XXI vv. [A stranger’s gaze: Diplomats, journalists, scholar travelers between East and West in the 18th – 21st centuries], 81–100. Moscow: Institut slavyanovedeniya RAN;
St Petersburg: Nestor-Istoriya, 2020. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Obraz Kryma v zapiskakh frantsuzskogo emigranta Polya Gibalya” [The image of Crimea in the memoir by French emigrant Paul Guibal]. Frantsuzskii ezhegodnik 2018: Mezhkul'turnye kontakty v period inostrannoi okkupatsii [Annual of French Studies 2018: Crosscultural contacts during foreign occupation], 437–52. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “The image of Crimea among British travellers Edward Clarke and Reginald Heber at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries.” RUDN Journal of Russian History, vol. 18,
no. 4 (2019): 883–903.
Khrapunov, N.I. “‘Vostok v Evrope’: Krym posle prisoedineniya k Rossiiskoi imperii glazami inostrantsev” [‘The Orient in Europe’: Crimea after unification with the Russian Empire as seen by the foreigners]. Novoe proshloe, no. 1 (2018): 63–78. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Zapadnoevropeiskie missionery v Krymu” [Western European missionaries in Crimea]. In Problemy integratsii Kryma v sostav Rossii, 1783–1825 [Aspects of integration of Crimea into Russia, 1783–1825], edited by N.I. Khrapunov, and D.V. Konkin, 289–304. Sevastopol: Al'batros, 2017. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I., and D.V. Konkin. “Mezhdu Zapadom i Vostokom: osobennosti razvitiya Kryma v sostave Rossiiskoi imperii v kontekste mezhkul’turnykh kommunikatsii (1783–1853)”
[Between West and East: The features of the development of the Crimea within the Russian Empire in the context of intercultural communications (1783–1853)]. Istoriya, vol. 12, no. 7 (105) (2021). Accessed November 13, 2021, (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I., and N.V. Gin'kut. “Matt'yu Gatri i ego ‘puteshestvie’ v istoriyu Kryma" [Matthew Guthrie and his ‘travel’ through the history of Crimea]. Izvestiya Ural'skogo
federal'nogo universiteta. Seriya 2: Gumanitarnye nauki, no. 4 (145) (2015): 157–70. (In Russian)
Konkin, D.V. “Otsenki ekonomicheskogo potentsiala Kryma v trudakh uchenykhputeshestvennikov: ‘defekt opisaniya’ i ego prakticheskie posledstviya” [Estimations of the Crimea’s economic potential in the works of learned travellers: The ‘defective perception’ and its practical results]. In Problemy integratsii Kryma v sostav Rossii, 1783–1825 [Aspects of integration of Crimea into Russia, 1783–1825], edited by N.I. Khrapunov, and D.V. Konkin, 37–56. Sevastopol: Al'batros, 2017. (In Russian)
Konkin, D.V. “Pereselencheskaya politika i khozyaistvennye proekty v Krymu” [Resettlement policy and economic projects in Crimea]. In Problemy integratsii Kryma v sostav Rossii,
1783–1825 [Aspects of integration of Crimea into Russia, 1783–1825], edited by N.I. Khrapunov, and D.V. Konkin, 231–43. Sevastopol: Al'batros, 2017. (In Russian)
Markevich, A.I. Tavricheskaya guberniya vo vremya Krymskoi voiny: po arkhivnym materialam [Tauride Governorate during the Crimean War: Based on archival materials]. Simferopol: Biznes-Inform, 1994. (In Russian)
Orekhov, V.V. V labirinte krymskogo mifa [In the labyrinth of the Crimean myth]. Simferopol; Nizhniy Novgorod: Rastr, 2017. (In Russian)
Proskurina, V.Yu. Imperiya pera Ekateriny II. Literatura kak politika [The empire by Catherine II’s pen. Literature as politics]. Moscow: NLO, 2017. (In Russian)
Rhinelander, A.L.H. Prince Michael Vorontsov: Viceroy to the Tsar. Montreal & Kingston; London; Buffalo: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990.
Sasse, G. The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
Schönle, A. “Garden of the Empire: Catherine’s Appropriation of the Crimea.” Slavic Review, vol. 60, no 1 (2001): 1–23.
Smirnov, V.D. Krymskoe khanstvo pod verkhovenstvom Ottomanskoi Porty [The Crimean Khanate under the Ottoman Porte], 2 vols. Vol. 2, V XVIII veke do prisoedineniya ego k Rossii
[In the 18th century before the annexation by Russia]. Moscow: Rubezhi XXI, 2005. (In Russian)
Trepavlov, V.V. Simvoly i ritualy v etnicheskoi politike Rossii XVI–XVIII vv. [Symbols and rituals in Russia’s ethnic policy in the 16th – 18th centuries]. St Petersburg: Izdatel'stvo Olega
Abyshko, 2018. (In Russian)
Wagemans, E. “Knyaz' de Lin' kak svidetel' potemkinskikh dereven'” [Prince de Ligne as a witness to the Potemkin villages]. In A Window on Russia: Papers from the V International
Conference of the Study Group on Eighteenth-Century Russia, edited by M. Di Salvo, and L. Hughes, 91–98. Rome: La Fenice, 1996.
Wolff, L. Izobretaya Vostochnuyu Evropu: Karta tsivilizatsii v soznanii epokhi Prosveshcheniya [Inventing Eastern Europe: The map of civilization on the mind of the
Enlightenment], translated from English by I. Fedyukin. Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2003. (In Russian)
Zakharova, O.Yu. Svetleishii knyaz' M.S. Vorontsov [His Serene Highness Prince M.S. Vorontsov]. Simferopol: Biznes-Inform, 2015. (In Russian)
Zorin, A.L. Kormya dvuglavogo oral. . . Literatura i gosudarstvennaya ideologiya v Rossii v poslednei treti XVIII – pervoi treti XIX veka [Feeding the double-headed eagle. . . Literature and state ideology in Russia in the last third of the 18th – first third of the 19th century]. Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2004. (In Russian)
Cross, A.G. “From the assassination of Paul I to Tilsit: The British in Russia and their travel writings (1801–1807).” Journal of European Studies, vol. 42, iss. 1 (2012): 5–21.
Dickinson, S. “Russia’s First ‘Orient’: Characterizing the Crimea in 1787.” Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History, vol. 3, no. 1 (2002): 3–25.
Druzhinina, E.I. Yuzhnaya Ukraina v period krizisa feodalizma. 1825–1860 gg. [Southern Ukraine during the crisis of feudalism. 1825–1860]. Moscow: Nauka, 1981. (In Russian)
Eisner, R. Travelers to an Antique Land. The History and Literature of Travel to Greece. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1993.
Gephardt, K. The Idea of Europe in British Travel Narratives, 1789–1914. London: Routledge, 2014.
Gerasimov, I., et al. Novaya imperskaya istoriya Severnoi Evrazii [New imperial history of Northern Eurasia], 2 pts. Pt. 2, Balansirovanie imperskoi situatsii XVIII–XX vv. [Balancing the
imperial situation in the 18th – 20th centuries]. Kazan: Ab imperio, 2017. (In Russian)
Grigor'ev, S.I. “. . .Kafir ves'ma krutogo nrava”: A.V. Suvorov i Krymskoe khanstvo (1771–1779) [“. . .Kafir of a very stern temper”: Suvorov and the Crimean Khanate (1771–1779)]. St Petersburg: Gosudarstvennyi memorial'nyi muzei A.V. Suvorova, 2015. (In Russian)
Jobst, K. “Krym kak rossiiskoe lieu de mémoire. Istoki v XIX v.” [Crimea as Russian lieu de mémoire. The origins in the 19th century]. In Istoricheskaya pamyat' i obshchestvo v Rossiiskoi imperii i Sovetskom soyuze (konets XIX – nachalo XX v.): Mezhdunarodnyi kollokvium: Nauchnye doklady (Sankt-Peterburg, 25–28 iyunya 2007 g.) [Historical memory and society in the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union (late 19th – early 20th century): International colloquium: Scholarly papers (St Petersburg, June 25–28, 2007)], 88–93. St Petersburg: Evropeiskii dom, 2007. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “K ponimaniyu krymskogo mifa: obraz ‘lenivogo tatarina’ v otechestvennom i zarubezhnom soznanii i ego ispol'zovanie” [Understanding the Crimean myth: The Image of ‘a Lazy Tatar’ in the domestic and foreign consciousness and its use]. In Mif v istorii, politike, kul'ture: sbornik materialov IV Mezhdunarodnoi nauchnoi mezhdistsiplinarnoi konferentsii
(Sevastopol', 26–27 iyunya 2020 g.) [Myth in history, politics, culture: Collection of materials of the 4th International Scientific Interdisciplinary Conference (June 26–27, 2020, Sevastopol)], edited by A.V. Stavitskii, 404–11. Sevastopol: Filial MGU imeni M.V. Lomonosova v gorode Sevastopole, 2020. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Kak opisat' etnografiyu imperskoi provintsii: Meri Khoulderness v Krymu” [Describing ethnography of a borderland province: Mary Holderness in the Crimea]. Izvestiya Ural'skogo federal'nogo universiteta. Seriya 2: Gumanitarnye nauki, vol. 22, no. 4 (202) (2020): 174–89. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Krym mezhdu Zapadom i Vostokom v zapiskakh britanskikh puteshestvennikov kontsa XVIII – nachala XIX v.” [The Crimea between East and West
according to late eighteenth – early nineteenth century British travelogues]. In Vzglyad chuzhezemtsa. Diplomaty, publitsisty, uchenye-puteshestvenniki mezhdu Vostokom i Zapadom v
XVIII–XXI vv. [A stranger’s gaze: Diplomats, journalists, scholar travelers between East and West in the 18th – 21st centuries], 81–100. Moscow: Institut slavyanovedeniya RAN;
St Petersburg: Nestor-Istoriya, 2020. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Obraz Kryma v zapiskakh frantsuzskogo emigranta Polya Gibalya” [The image of Crimea in the memoir by French emigrant Paul Guibal]. Frantsuzskii ezhegodnik 2018: Mezhkul'turnye kontakty v period inostrannoi okkupatsii [Annual of French Studies 2018: Crosscultural contacts during foreign occupation], 437–52. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “The image of Crimea among British travellers Edward Clarke and Reginald Heber at the turn of the 18th–19th centuries.” RUDN Journal of Russian History, vol. 18,
no. 4 (2019): 883–903.
Khrapunov, N.I. “‘Vostok v Evrope’: Krym posle prisoedineniya k Rossiiskoi imperii glazami inostrantsev” [‘The Orient in Europe’: Crimea after unification with the Russian Empire as seen by the foreigners]. Novoe proshloe, no. 1 (2018): 63–78. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I. “Zapadnoevropeiskie missionery v Krymu” [Western European missionaries in Crimea]. In Problemy integratsii Kryma v sostav Rossii, 1783–1825 [Aspects of integration of Crimea into Russia, 1783–1825], edited by N.I. Khrapunov, and D.V. Konkin, 289–304. Sevastopol: Al'batros, 2017. (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I., and D.V. Konkin. “Mezhdu Zapadom i Vostokom: osobennosti razvitiya Kryma v sostave Rossiiskoi imperii v kontekste mezhkul’turnykh kommunikatsii (1783–1853)”
[Between West and East: The features of the development of the Crimea within the Russian Empire in the context of intercultural communications (1783–1853)]. Istoriya, vol. 12, no. 7 (105) (2021). Accessed November 13, 2021, (In Russian)
Khrapunov, N.I., and N.V. Gin'kut. “Matt'yu Gatri i ego ‘puteshestvie’ v istoriyu Kryma" [Matthew Guthrie and his ‘travel’ through the history of Crimea]. Izvestiya Ural'skogo
federal'nogo universiteta. Seriya 2: Gumanitarnye nauki, no. 4 (145) (2015): 157–70. (In Russian)
Konkin, D.V. “Otsenki ekonomicheskogo potentsiala Kryma v trudakh uchenykhputeshestvennikov: ‘defekt opisaniya’ i ego prakticheskie posledstviya” [Estimations of the Crimea’s economic potential in the works of learned travellers: The ‘defective perception’ and its practical results]. In Problemy integratsii Kryma v sostav Rossii, 1783–1825 [Aspects of integration of Crimea into Russia, 1783–1825], edited by N.I. Khrapunov, and D.V. Konkin, 37–56. Sevastopol: Al'batros, 2017. (In Russian)
Konkin, D.V. “Pereselencheskaya politika i khozyaistvennye proekty v Krymu” [Resettlement policy and economic projects in Crimea]. In Problemy integratsii Kryma v sostav Rossii,
1783–1825 [Aspects of integration of Crimea into Russia, 1783–1825], edited by N.I. Khrapunov, and D.V. Konkin, 231–43. Sevastopol: Al'batros, 2017. (In Russian)
Markevich, A.I. Tavricheskaya guberniya vo vremya Krymskoi voiny: po arkhivnym materialam [Tauride Governorate during the Crimean War: Based on archival materials]. Simferopol: Biznes-Inform, 1994. (In Russian)
Orekhov, V.V. V labirinte krymskogo mifa [In the labyrinth of the Crimean myth]. Simferopol; Nizhniy Novgorod: Rastr, 2017. (In Russian)
Proskurina, V.Yu. Imperiya pera Ekateriny II. Literatura kak politika [The empire by Catherine II’s pen. Literature as politics]. Moscow: NLO, 2017. (In Russian)
Rhinelander, A.L.H. Prince Michael Vorontsov: Viceroy to the Tsar. Montreal & Kingston; London; Buffalo: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1990.
Sasse, G. The Crimea Question: Identity, Transition, and Conflict. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007.
Schönle, A. “Garden of the Empire: Catherine’s Appropriation of the Crimea.” Slavic Review, vol. 60, no 1 (2001): 1–23.
Smirnov, V.D. Krymskoe khanstvo pod verkhovenstvom Ottomanskoi Porty [The Crimean Khanate under the Ottoman Porte], 2 vols. Vol. 2, V XVIII veke do prisoedineniya ego k Rossii
[In the 18th century before the annexation by Russia]. Moscow: Rubezhi XXI, 2005. (In Russian)
Trepavlov, V.V. Simvoly i ritualy v etnicheskoi politike Rossii XVI–XVIII vv. [Symbols and rituals in Russia’s ethnic policy in the 16th – 18th centuries]. St Petersburg: Izdatel'stvo Olega
Abyshko, 2018. (In Russian)
Wagemans, E. “Knyaz' de Lin' kak svidetel' potemkinskikh dereven'” [Prince de Ligne as a witness to the Potemkin villages]. In A Window on Russia: Papers from the V International
Conference of the Study Group on Eighteenth-Century Russia, edited by M. Di Salvo, and L. Hughes, 91–98. Rome: La Fenice, 1996.
Wolff, L. Izobretaya Vostochnuyu Evropu: Karta tsivilizatsii v soznanii epokhi Prosveshcheniya [Inventing Eastern Europe: The map of civilization on the mind of the
Enlightenment], translated from English by I. Fedyukin. Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2003. (In Russian)
Zakharova, O.Yu. Svetleishii knyaz' M.S. Vorontsov [His Serene Highness Prince M.S. Vorontsov]. Simferopol: Biznes-Inform, 2015. (In Russian)
Zorin, A.L. Kormya dvuglavogo oral. . . Literatura i gosudarstvennaya ideologiya v Rossii v poslednei treti XVIII – pervoi treti XIX veka [Feeding the double-headed eagle. . . Literature and state ideology in Russia in the last third of the 18th – first third of the 19th century]. Moscow: Novoe literaturnoe obozrenie, 2004. (In Russian)
Keywords:
Crimea, travelogues, imagology, Golden Age myth, Crimean Khanate, Russian Empire, integration, Enlightenment ideas
For citation:
Khrapunov, N.I. “Russia in the Crimea: Civilizer or Oppressor? Images of the
Imperial Power in the Dispute of the Late 18th and the First Half of the 19th Century’s
Travelogues.” Historia provinciae – The Journal of Regional History, vol. 7, no. 1 (2023): 190–237. https://doi.org/10.23859/2587-8344-2023-7-1-5
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
ISSN 2587-8344 (Online)